With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the following statements: 1. The cases at Badami are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India. 2. The Barabar rock-cut cases were originally made for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. 3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Contents23
- A1 only
- B2 and 3 only
- C3 only
- D1, 2 and 3
Show answer
Answer: (C) 3 only
Statement 1 is wrong — the Barabar Caves (not Badami) are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India, dating back to the 3rd century BC during the Maurya period.
Badami caves are from a much later period (6th century AD, Chalukya dynasty).
Statement 2 is wrong — the Barabar caves were originally made for the Ajivikas, but by Emperor Ashoka (r. 273–232 BC) and his grandson Dasaratha, NOT by Chandragupta Maurya.
The inscriptions in the caves clearly attribute them to Ashoka.
This is a subtle but important distinction UPSC tests.
Statement 3 is correct — Ellora is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that uniquely houses caves of three different faiths built in close proximity:
- 12 Buddhist caves (caves 1–12)
- 17 Hindu caves (caves 13–29)
- 5 Jain caves (caves 30–34).
This demonstrates the religious harmony prevalent during that period of Indian history.
So only statement 3 is correct.
The Barabar Caves are India's oldest surviving rock-cut caves from the 3rd century BC, making them a foundational reference point for all later cave architecture.
UPSC creates confusion by testing similar names (Badami vs Barabar) and similar Mauryan emperors (Chandragupta vs Ashoka) to check precise knowledge of who built what.
The question tests whether students can distinguish between different periods of cave architecture and know the unique multi-religious nature of specific sites like Ellora.
Barabar Caves - Oldest Rock-Cut Architecture
Art And Culture Barabar oldest surviving rock-cut caves Chandragupta Maurya Ajivikas
Barabar Caves: India's Oldest Rock-Cut Architecture & UPSC Traps
Barabar Caves (Bihar) are India's oldest surviving rock-cut caves from 3rd century BC
Built by Ashoka and Dasaratha for Ajivikas, NOT Chandragupta Maurya
Located in Jehanabad district, Bihar near Gaya
Contains 7 caves with Brahmi inscriptions attributing them to Mauryan rulers
Historical Context
The Barabar Caves represent the earliest phase of Indian rock-cut architecture, predating all other cave complexes by centuries. They mark the beginning of a tradition that would later flourish at Ajanta, Ellora, and other sites.
Date: 3rd century BC (Mauryan period)
Purpose: Residential caves for Ajivika monks
Royal patronage: Emperor Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha
Key Barabar Caves
Cave Name | Built by | Key Features | Inscription |
|---|---|---|---|
Lomas Rishi | Ashoka | Elaborate entrance, chaitya arch | "Given by King Piyadassi" |
Sudama | Ashoka | Simple rectangular chamber | "12th year of Ashoka's reign" |
Karan Chaupar | Ashoka | Two chambers | Dedicated to Ajivikas |
Visva Zopri | Dasaratha | Circular chamber | "Given by Dasaratha" |
Architectural Features
Highly polished interior walls - achieved through advanced Mauryan stone-working techniques
Simple rectangular or circular chambers - designed for meditation and residence
Chaitya arch entrance at Lomas Rishi - prototype for later Buddhist architecture
No sculptural decoration - reflects Ajivika ascetic traditions
Location & Layout
Source: Bihar and Jharkhand tour guide - Web Hosting — Tourist places in Jehanabad · biharjharkhandtour.orgfree.com
Trap: Confusing Ashoka (who built Barabar) with Chandragupta Maurya - inscriptions clearly name Ashoka
Trap: Mixing up Barabar (oldest, Bihar) with Badami (6th century AD, Karnataka, Chalukya)
Trap: Assuming all Mauryan caves are Buddhist - Barabar caves were built for Ajivikas
Trap: Dating confusion - Barabar is 3rd century BC, much older than Ajanta/Ellora
Badami Caves - Chalukya Rock-Cut Architecture
Art And Culture Badami
Badami Caves: Chalukya Dynasty Rock-Cut Temples (6th Century AD)
Badami Caves built in 6th century AD by Chalukya dynasty in Karnataka
4 caves dedicated to Hinduism (Cave 1-3) and Jainism (Cave 4)
NOT the oldest - much later than Barabar Caves (3rd century BC)
Famous for Nataraja sculpture and Varaha (boar incarnation) carvings
Historical Background
Badami (ancient Vatapi) was the capital of the Early Chalukya dynasty under Pulakeshin I and Pulakeshin II. The caves represent the mature phase of South Indian rock-cut architecture, showcasing advanced sculptural techniques.
Badami Cave Details
Cave | Religion | Deity/Theme | Key Sculptures |
|---|---|---|---|
Cave 1 | Hindu (Shaiva) | Shiva | 18-armed Nataraja, Shiva-Parvati |
Cave 2 | Hindu (Vaishnava) | Vishnu | Varaha (boar avatar), Trivikrama |
Cave 3 | Hindu (Vaishnava) | Vishnu | Largest cave, Vishnu on Shesha |
Cave 4 | Jain | Tirthankaras | Parsva, Mahavira, Bahubali |
Architectural Significance
Dravida style elements - pillars with bracket capitals typical of South Indian architecture
Integration of sculpture and architecture - caves are temples with elaborate carved facades
Transitional period - bridge between early rock-cut caves and later structural temples
Multi-religious complex - 3 Hindu caves + 1 Jain cave showing religious tolerance
Major Trap: Badami is NOT the oldest - question deliberately tests this confusion with Barabar
Trap: Dating confusion - Badami is 6th century AD, Barabar is 3rd century BC
Trap: Dynasty mix-up - Badami is Chalukya, not Mauryan architecture
Ellora Caves - Multi-Religious Complex
Art And Culture Ellora different faiths
Ellora Caves: Unique Multi-Religious Rock-Cut Complex
34 caves representing 3 religions: Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain
Cave 16 contains the famous Kailasa Temple - largest monolithic structure
Built between 6th-11th centuries AD by various dynasties
UNESCO World Heritage Site demonstrating religious harmony
Religious Harmony
Ellora is unique among Indian cave complexes because it houses temples of three different faiths built in close proximity over several centuries. This demonstrates the religious tolerance and syncretic culture of medieval India.
Cave Distribution by Religion
Religion | Cave Numbers | Period | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
Buddhist | Caves 1-12 | 6th-8th century | Viharas and chaityas, Buddha sculptures |
Hindu | Caves 13-29 | 7th-10th century | Kailasa Temple (Cave 16), Shiva-Vishnu themes |
Jain | Caves 30-34 | 9th-11th century | Indra Sabha (Cave 32), Tirthankara sculptures |
Architectural Highlights
Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) - carved from single rock, represents Mount Kailasa
Dashavatara Cave (Cave 15) - can be entered from Buddhist or Hindu sections
Rameshvara Cave (Cave 21) - excellent Shaiva sculptures and river goddesses
Indra Sabha (Cave 32) - finest Jain cave with elaborate carvings
Cave Layout
Source: Pinterest — Layout of Ellora Caves, built in Charanadri Hills by Rashtrakuta ... · www.pinterest.com
Religious Themes
# Ellora Multi-Religious Complex
## Buddhist Caves (1-12)
- Viharas (monasteries)
- Chaityas (prayer halls)
- Bodhisattva sculptures
- Visvakarma Cave
## Hindu Caves (13-29)
- Kailasa Temple
- Shaiva themes
- Vaishnavite sculptures
- Dashavatara Cave
## Jain Caves (30-34)
- Indra Sabha
- Jagannatha Sabha
- Tirthankara images
- Jain cosmologyStatement 3 is correct - Ellora definitively has caves for Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain faiths
Trap: Don't confuse with Ajanta (only Buddhist) or Elephanta (only Hindu)
Trap: Cave numbering - Buddhist (1-12), Hindu (13-29), Jain (30-34) - remember the sequence
Ajivika Sect - Ancient Indian Philosophy
Art And Culture Ajivikas
Ajivika Sect: Forgotten Heterodox School of Ancient India
Ajivika sect founded by Makkhali Gosala, contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira
Believed in strict determinism - everything predetermined by niyati (destiny)
Received royal patronage from Emperor Ashoka who built Barabar Caves for them
Extinct sect - disappeared by medieval period unlike Buddhism and Jainism
Philosophy & Beliefs
Ajivikas were one of the major heterodox schools (nastika) of ancient India alongside Buddhism and Jainism. Their core doctrine was niyati (fate/destiny) - the belief that everything in the universe is predetermined and human effort cannot change outcomes.
Ajivika vs Buddhism vs Jainism
Aspect | Ajivika | Buddhism | Jainism |
|---|---|---|---|
Founder | Makkhali Gosala | Gautama Buddha | Mahavira |
Core Doctrine | Niyati (determinism) | Middle Path | Ahimsa (non-violence) |
Free Will | Denied - all predetermined | Limited - karma + effort | Accepted - personal responsibility |
Survival | Extinct by medieval period | Survived globally | Survived in India |
Royal Patronage | Ashoka (Barabar Caves) | Ashoka (later period) | Various rulers |
Historical Significance
Third major heterodox school - along with Buddhism and Jainism challenged Vedic orthodoxy
Influenced Mauryan policy - Ashoka's early religious tolerance included Ajivika patronage
Philosophical debates - engaged with Buddhist and Jain thinkers on free will vs determinism
Archaeological evidence - Barabar Cave inscriptions are primary source of information
Key Trap: Ashoka built Barabar for Ajivikas, NOT Chandragupta Maurya
Trap: Don't confuse Ajivika determinism with Buddhist karma or Jain liberation
Trap: Ajivikas were heterodox (rejected Vedas), not orthodox Hindu sect
Chronology of Indian Rock-Cut Caves
Art And Culture
Evolution of Indian Rock-Cut Architecture: Complete Timeline
Barabar (3rd century BC) → Ajanta (2nd century BC-6th AD) → Badami/Ellora (6th-8th century AD)
Evolution: Simple chambers → Buddhist chaityas → Complex temple architecture
Maharashtra has the largest concentration with Ajanta, Ellora, Elephanta
Chronological Development
%%{init: {"flowchart": {"wrappingWidth": 460}}}%%
flowchart TD
s1["`****Mauryan Period** (3rd century BC)**
**Barabar Caves** (Bihar) - Simple residential caves for Ajivikas`"]
s2["`****Early Buddhist** (2nd century BC - 2nd AD)**
**Early Ajanta**, **Bhaja**, **Karla** - Chaityas and viharas`"]
s3["`****Classical Buddhist** (5th-6th century AD)**
**Later Ajanta** - Peak of Buddhist cave art and painting`"]
s4["`****Hindu Renaissance** (6th-8th century AD)**
**Badami**, **Aihole**, **Elephanta** - Hindu themes dominate`"]
s5["`****Multi-Religious** (6th-11th century AD)**
**Ellora** - Buddhist, Hindu, Jain caves coexist`"]
s1 --> s2
s2 --> s3
s3 --> s4
s4 --> s5Major Rock-Cut Sites Comparison
Site | Period | Religion | State | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Barabar | 3rd century BC | Ajivika | Bihar | Oldest surviving caves |
Ajanta | 2nd BC - 6th AD | Buddhist | Maharashtra | World-famous paintings |
Badami | 6th century AD | Hindu + Jain | Karnataka | Chalukya architecture |
Ellora | 6th-11th century AD | Multi-religious | Maharashtra | Kailasa Temple |
Elephanta | 6th-8th century AD | Hindu (Shaiva) | Maharashtra | Trimurti sculpture |
Geographic Distribution
Source: LotusArise — Ancient Cave Sites in India - UPSC Notes » LotusArise IAS · lotusarise.com
Chronology Trap: Barabar (3rd century BC) is oldest, NOT Badami (6th century AD)
Geography Trap: Don't mix Badami (Karnataka) with Barabar (Bihar)
Religion Trap: Ajanta (only Buddhist), Ellora (multi-religious), Elephanta (only Hindu)